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A study of crosstalk in a 256 x 256 photon counting imager based on silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes

April 1, 2015
  |
Journal Article
Author:
Brian F. Aull
…
Published in:
IEEE Sens. J., Vol. 15, No. 4, April 2015, pp. 2123-32.
Topic:
photonics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

We demonstrate a 256 x 256 passive photon counting imager based on hybridization of back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes to an all-digital CMOS counting chip. Photon detection efficiencies in the 10%-20% are observed at visible wavelengths. The detection efficiency is currently limited by optical crosstalk that leads to elevation of dark count rates as the bias voltage on the photodiodes is increased. Both the time dependence of dark count activity during a gate time and the spatial structure of dark images were successfully explained using crosstalk-based models.
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Summary

We demonstrate a 256 x 256 passive photon counting imager based on hybridization of back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes to an all-digital CMOS counting chip. Photon detection efficiencies in the 10%-20% are observed at visible wavelengths. The detection efficiency is currently limited by optical crosstalk that leads to elevation of...

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A study of crosstalk in a 256 x 256 photon counting imager based on silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes

Detection statistics in Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode quad-cell arrays with crosstalk and dead time

April 1, 2015
  |
Journal Article
Author:
Brian F. Aull
…
Published in:
IEEE Sens. J., Vol. 15, No. 4, April 2015, pp. 2133-43.
Topic:
optics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

The detection statistics of Geiger-mode photodetector subarrays with a combination of reset-time blocking loss and optical crosstalk are investigated. Closed-form expressions are obtained for the means and covariances of the numbers of counts in 2 x 2 subarrays (quad cells) used in Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors. The predicted wavefront sensing precision is compared with that obtained with a charge-coupled device-based wavefront sensor with readout noise. The results of the theory are also used to predict photon transfer curves for the Geiger-mode device and these are compared with experiment.
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Summary

The detection statistics of Geiger-mode photodetector subarrays with a combination of reset-time blocking loss and optical crosstalk are investigated. Closed-form expressions are obtained for the means and covariances of the numbers of counts in 2 x 2 subarrays (quad cells) used in Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors. The predicted wavefront sensing precision...

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Detection statistics in Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode quad-cell arrays with crosstalk and dead time

MBE back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes for enhanced ultraviolet response

April 25, 2011
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Conference Paper
Author:
Daniel R. Schuette
…
Published in:
SPIE Vol. 8033, Advanced Photon Counting Techniques V, 25 April 2011, 80330D.
Topic:
sensors
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

We have demonstrated a wafer-scale back-illumination process for silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays using Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) for backside passivation. Critical to this fabrication process is support of the thin (< 10 um) detector during the MBE growth by oxide-bonding to a full-thickness silicon wafer. This back-illumination process makes it possible to build low-dark-count-rate single-photon detectors with high quantum efficiency extending to deep ultraviolet wavelengths. This paper reviews our process for fabricating MBE back-illuminated silicon Geigermode avalanche photodiode arrays and presents characterization of initial test devices.
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Summary

We have demonstrated a wafer-scale back-illumination process for silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays using Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) for backside passivation. Critical to this fabrication process is support of the thin ( 10 um) detector during the MBE growth by oxide-bonding to a full-thickness silicon wafer. This back-illumination process makes...

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MBE back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes for enhanced ultraviolet response

Hybridization process for back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays

April 5, 2010
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Conference Paper
Author:
Daniel R. Schuette
…
Published in:
SPIE Vol. 7681, Advanced Photon Counting Techniques IV, 5 April 2010, 76810P.
Topic:
photonics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

We present a unique hybridization process that permits high-performance back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GM-APDs) to be bonded to custom CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) - a hybridization approach that enables independent optimization of the GM-APD arrays and the ROICs. The process includes oxide bonding of silicon GM-APD arrays to a transparent support substrate followed by indium bump bonding of this layer to a signal-processing ROIC. This hybrid detector approach can be used to fabricate imagers with high-fill-factor pixels and enhanced quantum efficiency in the near infrared as well as large-pixel-count, small-pixel-pitch arrays with pixel-level signal processing. In addition, the oxide bonding is compatible with high-temperature processing steps that can be used to lower dark current and improve optical response in the ultraviolet.
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Summary

We present a unique hybridization process that permits high-performance back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GM-APDs) to be bonded to custom CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) - a hybridization approach that enables independent optimization of the GM-APD arrays and the ROICs. The process includes oxide bonding of silicon GM-APD arrays to...

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Hybridization process for back-illuminated silicon Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode arrays

A 4-side tileable back illuminated 3D-integrated Mpixel CMOS image sensor

February 9, 2009
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Conference Paper
Author:
Vyshnavi Suntharalingam
…
Published in:
ISSCC 09, 2009 IEEE Int. Solid-State Circuits Conf., 8-12 February 2009, pp. 38-39.
Topic:
semiconductor (CMOS)
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

The dominant trend with conventional image sensors is toward scaled-down pixel sizes to increase spatial resolution and decrease chip size and cost. While highly capable chips, these monolithic image sensors devote substantial perimeter area to signal acquisition and control circuitry and trade off pixel complexity for fill factor. For applications such as wide-area persistent surveillance, reconnaissance, and astronomical sky surveys it is desirable to have simultaneous near-real-time imagery with fast, wide field-of-view coverage. Since the fabrication of a complex large-format sensor on a single piece of silicon is cost and yield-prohibitive and is limited to the wafer size, for these applications many smaller-sized image sensors are tiled together to realize very large arrays. Ideally the tiled image sensor has no missing pixels and the pixel pitch is continuous across the seam to minimize loss of information content. CCD-based imagers have been favored for these large mosaic arrays because of their low noise and high sensitivity, but CMOS-based image sensors bring architectural benefits, including electronic shutters, enhanced radiation tolerance, and higher data-rate digital outputs that are more easily scalable to larger arrays. In this report the first back-illuminated, 1 Mpixel, 3D-integrated CMOS image sensor with 8 mum-pitch 3D via connections. The chip employs a conventional pixel layout and requires 500 mum of perimeter silicon to house the support circuitry and protect the array from saw damage. In this paper we present a back-illuminated 1 Mpixel CMOS image sensor tile that includes a 64-channel vertically integrated ADC chip stack, and requires only a few pixels of silicon perimeter to the pixel array. The tile and system connector design support 4-side abuttability and fast burst data rates.
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Summary

The dominant trend with conventional image sensors is toward scaled-down pixel sizes to increase spatial resolution and decrease chip size and cost. While highly capable chips, these monolithic image sensors devote substantial perimeter area to signal acquisition and control circuitry and trade off pixel complexity for fill factor. For applications...

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A 4-side tileable back illuminated 3D-integrated Mpixel CMOS image sensor

Geiger-mode quad-cell array for adaptive optics

May 7, 2008
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Conference Paper
Author:
Brian F. Aull
…
Published in:
CLEO-QELS, 2008 Conf. on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conf., 4-9 May 2008.
Topic:
optics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

We report an array of Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors using high-fill-factor Geiger-mode avalanche detector quad cells hybridized to all-digital CMOS counting circuits. The absence of readout noise facilitates fast wavefront sensing at low light levels.
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Summary

We report an array of Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors using high-fill-factor Geiger-mode avalanche detector quad cells hybridized to all-digital CMOS counting circuits. The absence of readout noise facilitates fast wavefront sensing at low light levels.

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Geiger-mode quad-cell array for adaptive optics

Orthogonal transfer arrays for wide-field adaptive imaging

June 7, 2007
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Conference Paper
Author:
Barry E. Burke
…
Published in:
Proc. 2007 Int. Image Sensor Workshop, 7-10 June 2007.
Topic:
optics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

The orthogonal transfer array (OTA) is a novel charge-coupled device (CCD) imager based on the orthogonal-transfer CCD (OTCCD). The OTCCD, in turn, is a device capable of charge transfer in all directions and has been developed for adaptive imaging in ground-based astronomy. By using a bright guide star as a beacon, the OTCCD can correct for wavefront tilt due to atmospheric effects as well as compensation for telescope shake, which in turn enhances the resolution and SNR. However, for wide field-of-view imaging the atmospheric wavefront distortions decorrelate over distances more than a few 10's of arcmin and hence an array of independently driven OTCCDs is required. To resolve this issue we developed the OTA, which consists of a two-dimensional array of OTCCDs combined with addressing and control logic to enable independent clocking of each OTCCD. This device enables spatially varying electronic tip-tilt correction and was developed for the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) program at the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy (UH/IfA)
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Summary

The orthogonal transfer array (OTA) is a novel charge-coupled device (CCD) imager based on the orthogonal-transfer CCD (OTCCD). The OTCCD, in turn, is a device capable of charge transfer in all directions and has been developed for adaptive imaging in ground-based astronomy. By using a bright guide star as a...

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Orthogonal transfer arrays for wide-field adaptive imaging

Lincoln Laboratory high-speed solid-state imager technology

September 17, 2006
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Conference Paper
Author:
Robert K. Reich
…
Published in:
SPIE Vol. 6279, 27th Int. Congress on High-Speed Photography and Photonics, 17-22 September 2006, 62791K.
Topic:
optics
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lincoln Laboratory (MIT LL) has been developing both continuous and burst solid-state focal-plane-array technology for a variety of high-speed imaging applications. For continuous imaging, a 128 ¿ 128-pixel charge coupled device (CCD) has been fabricated with multiple output ports for operating rates greater than 10,000 frames per second with readout noise of less than 10 e- rms. An electronic shutter has been integrated into the pixels of the back-illuminated (BI) CCD imagers that give snapshot exposure times of less than 10 ns. For burst imaging, a 5 cm x 5 cm, 512 x 512-element, multi-frame CCD imager that collects four sequential image frames at megahertz rates has been developed for the Los Alamos National Laboratory Dual Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test (DARHT) facility. To operate at fast frame rates with high sensitivity, the imager uses the same electronic shutter technology as the continuously framing 128 x 128 CCD imager. The design concept and test results are described for the burst-frame-rate imager. Also discussed is an evolving solid-state imager technology that has interesting characteristics for creating large-format x-ray detectors with ultra-short exposure times (100 to 300 ps). The detector will consist of CMOS readouts for high speed sampling (tens of picoseconds transistor switching times) that are bump bonded to deep-depletion silicon photodiodes. A 64 x 64-pixel CMOS test chip has been designed, fabricated and characterized to investigate the feasibility of making large-format detectors with short, simultaneous exposure times.
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Summary

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lincoln Laboratory (MIT LL) has been developing both continuous and burst solid-state focal-plane-array technology for a variety of high-speed imaging applications. For continuous imaging, a 128 ¿ 128-pixel charge coupled device (CCD) has been fabricated with multiple output ports for operating rates greater than 10,000 frames...

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Lincoln Laboratory high-speed solid-state imager technology

Laser radar imager based on 3D integration of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes with two SOI timing circuit layers

February 6, 2006
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Conference Paper
Author:
Brian F. Aull
…
Published in:
ISSCC 2006, IEEE Int. Solid-State Circuits Conf., 6-9 February 2006.
Topic:
ladar
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

We have developed focal-plane arrays and laser-radar (ladar) imaging systems based on Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (APDs) integrated with high-speed all-digital CMOS timing circuits. A Geiger-mode APD produces a digital pulse upon detection of a single photon. This pulse is used to stop a fast digital counter in the pixel circuit, thereby measuring photon arrival time. This "photon-to-digital conversion" yields quantum-limited sensitivity and noiseless readout, enabling high-performance ladar systems. Previously reported focal planes, based on bump bonding or epoxy bonding the APDs to foundry chips, had coarse (100um) pixel spacing and 0.5ns timing quantization.
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Summary

We have developed focal-plane arrays and laser-radar (ladar) imaging systems based on Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (APDs) integrated with high-speed all-digital CMOS timing circuits. A Geiger-mode APD produces a digital pulse upon detection of a single photon. This pulse is used to stop a fast digital counter in the pixel circuit...

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Laser radar imager based on 3D integration of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes with two SOI timing circuit layers

Megapixel CMOS image sensor fabricated in three-dimensional integrated circuit technology

June 19, 2005
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Conference Paper
Author:
Vyshnavi Suntharalingam
…
Published in:
2005 IEEE Int. Solid-Stat Circuits Conf. Digest of Technical Papers, Pt.1, 19-25 June 2005, p. 356-357.
Topic:
integrated circuit
R&D area:
R&D group:

Summary

In this paper a 3D integrated 1024x1024, 8um pixel visible image sensor fabricated with oxide-to-oxide wafer bonding and 2-um square 3-D-vias in every pixel is presented. The 150mm wafer technology integrates a low-leakage, deep-depletion, 100% fill factor photodiode layer to a 3.3-V, 0.35-um gate length fully depleted (FD) SOI CMOS readout circuit layer.
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Summary

In this paper a 3D integrated 1024x1024, 8um pixel visible image sensor fabricated with oxide-to-oxide wafer bonding and 2-um square 3-D-vias in every pixel is presented. The 150mm wafer technology integrates a low-leakage, deep-depletion, 100% fill factor photodiode layer to a 3.3-V, 0.35-um gate length fully depleted (FD) SOI CMOS...

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Megapixel CMOS image sensor fabricated in three-dimensional integrated circuit technology
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